The number of antisemitic incidents recorded in 1997 and 1998 in the Netherlands increased slightly in comparison with previous years. Most were not of a life-threatening or violent nature, but rather individual cases of threats or insults. Contrary to the expectation of monitoring groups the high levels of media coverage concerning war-time assets and gold stolen by the Nazis led to no increase in the number of reported incidents.
As a result of their defeat in both municipal and parliamentary elections in 1998 - the far-right parties were practically wiped off the map when they gained only two seats in the municipal elections of March 1998 and no parliamentary seats in May - the far right in the Netherlands has ceased to be a political force. This has been compounded by intensified legal action against far-right actvists and parties, culminating in an extraordinary ruling by an Amsterdam court in November 1998 to ban the far right party NVP/CP'86.
Demographic data
Total population: 15.7 million
Jewish population: 25,000-40,000 (1996 figure)
Other minorities: approximately 10 per cent of the population, including principally Indonesians, Kurds, Surinamese, Dutch Antilleans, Arubans, Turks and Moroccans, and their descendants
Political data
Political system: parliamentary democracy
Head of state: Queen Beatrix
Government: a coalition comprised of the social democratic Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA, Labour Party), the right-wing liberal Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratij (VVD, People's Party for Freedom and Democracy) and the centre-left Democraten 66 (D66, Democrats), under Prime Minister Wim Kok (PvdA)
Opposition: the principal opposition party is the Christen Democratisch Appel (CDA, Christian Democratic Appeal); the most important left-wing parties are the Groen Links (Green Left Alliance) and the Socialistische Partij (SP, Socialist Party); the parties of the Dutch Reform Church are the Staatkundig Gereformeerde Partij (SGP, Political Reformed Party), the Gereformeerd Politiek Verbond (GPV, Reformed Political Union) and the Reformatorrische Politieke Federatie (RPF, Reformational Political Federation). Since the May 1998 elections the far right holds no parliamentary seats.
Next parliamentary elections: May 2002
Economic data
GDP 1997: fl 698 billion (US$404.8 billion)
GDP per head 1997: US$26,000
GDP growth 1997: 2.8 per cent
Inflation 1997: 3 per cent
Unemployment 1997: 1.7 per cent
Currency: fl 1=US$0.58 (January 1999)
A Jewish community is known to have existed in what is now the Kingdom of the Netherlands since the Middle Ages. At times it has been subject to persecution and expulsion from various provinces.
In the early seventeenth century the community was swelled by the arrival of descendants of Sephardi Jews who had fled the Spanish Inquisition. While they were free to practise Judaism, Jews were restricted to certain trades because - until the granting of emancipation in 1796 - they were excluded from the existing guilds.
In the 1930s several national-socialist parties emerged, some more antisemitic than others. During the Nazi occupation of 1940-5, contrary to the perception outside the country, social antisemitism increased. In the early post-war years indifference to the fate of Jews was widespread, despite the fact that some 100,000 of the 140,000 Dutch Jews had perished in the Holocaust. Although social antisemitism has by no means disappeared completely, it remains publicly unacceptable.
The widow of Rost van Tonningen - one of the leaders of the Dutch National-Socialist party that collaborated with the Nazi occupation during the Second World War - announced in 1997 that she would continue to exhibit Nazi objects to the public from her home in Velp. Nazi propaganda has more than once been seized from her home, including Holocaust-denial publications such as Die Auschwitz-Lüge (The Auschwitz Lie) by her late friend Thies Christophersen (see Germany). She also continues to maintain national and international contacts with neo-Nazis and their organizations. The judicial authorities and the mayor of Velp say they will act if Mrs van Tonningen continues to host the exhibition.
The treatment of racial and ethnic minorities, recent immigrants and asylum-seekers continues to be a difficult domestic issue. The main minority communities are immigrants from Indonesia, Surinam, the Dutch Antilles, Aruba, Turkey and Morocco and their descendants born in the Netherlands. While de facto discrimination against non-white minorities and immigrants, particularly in housing and employment, continues to be a reality, unemployment figures for minorities are apparently falling.
More legislation to combat racism and better methods of enforcement have been introduced in recent years. Penalties have been increased for discrimination by political parties, organizations and institutions (as opposed to discrimination by an individual). Police monitoring procedures and documentation have also been improved.
The latest available figures (for 1997) for racially motivated incidents of violence reported to the Criminele Inlichtingen Dienst (CID, Criminal Investigation Service) continue the decreasing trend of previous years, particularly in the case of life-threatening incidents. This apparent reversal of the previously rising number of such incidents has been attributed to a waning interest in hard-core racist politics and to a decrease in the number of far-right activists.
The CID reported that in 1997 over 1,000 racially motivated incidents occurred in the Netherlands. These incidents ranged from the distribution of racist pamphlets to bomb threats or harassment and the destruction of property. No life-threatening incidents were reported. The justice ministry also reported that most racially motivated violence was carried out by youths for non-ideological reasons, i.e. as the result of tensions arising between groups living in the same neighbourhoods.
The July 1994 law requiring employers with at least thirty-five employees to register those that are 'non-Dutch' and to submit plans for affirmative action programmes continues to run into serious implementation problems. Only a small number of employers have complied with the law, partly because they find compliance burdensome and partly because many employers and employees alike object to the labelling of workers as 'non-Dutch'. The fall in unemployment figures among minorities (see above) has also reduced the urgency of the implementation of the law.
Refugees and immigration
The far-right parties continue crudely to characterize 'immigrants' as the main beneficiaries of the country's welfare provisions (see Parties, organizations, movements), but there is also some more widespread public suspicion of immigration - as taken up by the mainstream parties - and the issue of 'illegals' and asylum-seekers has become an increasingly prominent feature of the Dutch political landscape in recent years.
The latest immigration legislation, presented to parliament in November 1996, requires that those who enter the Netherlands intending to settle (whether or not they hold a Dutch passport) take a language and literacy test and, if necessary, receive language tuition, as well as lessons in social assimilation and career guidance.
The Netherlands traditionally has adopted a liberal policy towards asylum-seekers and the relevant procedures take into account conditions in the applicant's country of origin. Following tighter restrictions on the right to asylum that came into force in January 1995, the number of asylum-seekers has decreased significantly. However, in 1998 this trend has been reversed with the number of asylum-seekers doubling to an estimated figure of over 50,000.
Most asylum-seekers (87 per cent) are permitted to apply for asylum status. A sizeable number (about 40 per cent in 1996) of those applicants are eventually denied permission to remain or are permitted to stay temporarily on humanitarian grounds or until their country of origin is deemed safe. A re-migration programme has been instituted in which rejected asylum-seekers from selected countries (including some former Yugoslav republics, Somalia and Sri Lanka) are encouraged through financial incentives to return voluntarily. In 1997, 1,000 Iranian and 600 Somali asylum-seekers were deported.
Legislation was introduced in October 1997 to ensure that an individual's previous nationality is given up on acquiring Dutch citizenship. Reports by the Central Bureau for Statistics (CBS) showed that only 20 per cent of those naturalized throughout 1997 surrendered their original nationality on gaining Dutch citizenship.
The principal far-right parties - Centrum Democraten (CD, Centre Democrats), the more extreme Nationale Volkspartij/Centrumpartij '86 (NVP/CP'86, National People's Party/Centre Party '86), which was declared illegal in November 1998 (see Legal matters), and the Volks Nationalisten Nederland (VNN, People's Nationalists of the Netherlands) - direct their xenophobic propaganda at non-white immigrants and eschew overtly antisemitic statements and propaganda. Individual party activists, however, do not always follow suit.
According to Rinke van den Brink, an expert on the Dutch far right, in an article in Vrij Nederland (25 November 1996), the total membership - largely a floating one - of all the far-right groups in the Netherlands was not greater than 1,500, including no more than 150 activists. It appears that in more recent years this figure has decreased significantly, and in 1997 the CID reported that the number of right-wing activists had decreased to a core group of 50-60 individuals out of a total population of over 15 million people. In part this is due to an increased willingness to bring prosecutions against members of far-right political parties, and in part a result of their municipal and parliamentary electoral defeats of 1998: the far-right parties were practically wiped off the map when they emerged from the municipal elections of March 1998 with only two seats, one for the CD in Schiedam (near Rotterdam) and one for the Nederlands Blok (NB, Dutch Bloc, see below) in Utrecht. (Compare this with the high point of far-right electoral success, the municipal elections of March 1994, when far-right candidates secured a total of 87 out of 2,442 seats.) In the May 1998 parliamentary elections, the far right finished with no seats at all, having lost the three held by the CD since 1994.
Founded in 1984 the CD is led by Hans Janmaat. As the main successor of the Centrumpartij (see below), the CD has tried to capitalize on the effects of recession, unemployment and welfare cuts, and claims that foreigners are the principal beneficiaries of welfare provision. The party campaigns on the slogans 'Full is full' and 'Netherlands for the Dutch', which have been used in elections since 1994. It has been continually beset by internecine disputes, in part due to Janmaat's reportedly authoritarian behaviour - in May 1997 he expelled four Rotterdam councillors for being too closely connected to NVP/CP'86 - as well as to more or less continual court battles. In the March 1998 municipal elections the CD lost 76 of the 77 seats gained in the 1994 municipal elections. These seats were not always occupied and the CD also lost seats when elected members switched parties or started their own faction.
Since Willem Beaux's defection in November 1996 to the VNN (see also below), NVP/CP'86 has been led by Martijn Freling, a former Rotterdam councillor who lost his seat in the March 1998 municipal elections. The party had already suffered a severe blow in 1995 when an Amsterdam court found the organization and five of its leaders - including the whole of the editorial board of the party's newspaper - guilty of spreading racial hatred. Probably as a result, the group has been increasingly plagued by factional in-fighting between a militant, hard-core wing - led by elected Freling and Stewart Mordaunt (another former town councillor from The Hague), advocates of the repatriation of non-white Dutch citizens - and veteran party leaders who favour a more 'moderate' approach. After a long legal procedure, the party was proclaimed illegal by an Amsterdam court in November 1998 (see Legal matters).
CP'86 was founded in 1986, with some fifty members or less, following the demise of the Centrumpartij (CP, Centre Party). Most of the CP membership (which, until 1984, had included Janmaat, who held the CP's only parliamentary seat from 1982) had by that point drifted towards the CD or away from extremist politics. The party has always been CD's more radical rival for the anti-immigrant vote, campaigning on the slogan 'Our own people first', and has been closely linked to the German Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands (NPD, see Germany), as well as more loosely with the Belgian Vlaams Blok (VB, see Belgium) and the British Blood and Honour music scene (see United Kingdom).
In October 1997 VNN, a new far-right party, appeared in the Netherlands when twenty of its members forced their way into a campsite for asylum-seekers. The group shouted slogans such as 'illegals out' and nailed anti-immigrant pamphlets to trees. The party, a splinter group of NVP/CP'86, use the motto 'One people, one fatherland' and believe in unification between the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium). The chair of the new party is Willem Beaux (see above) and party secretary/deputy chair is Marc de Boer. The VNN was unsuccesful in the six municipalities in which they stood candidates in the March 1998 local elections.
The NB is a small, local and insignificant CD-splinter grouping which campaigns primarily in Utrecht. It claims to be modelled on the Belgian VB (see Belgium) and is led by Wim Vreeswijk, a former CD activist who joined the party in 1993. The NB participated in the March 1998 local elections in two areas and succeeded in holding their one seat in Utrecht (see above).
The Nederlands Volks Unie (NVU, Dutch People's Union) was founded as a political party in 1971 by Joop Glimmerveen, and its original membership included a number of former Nazis. During the 1970s the party adhered to racist ideology and became increasingly militant as younger neo-Nazis joined its ranks. Following attempts to ban the NVU in the Dutch courts during the 1980s, some members formed the CP (see above). Since then, the NVU's size and influence on the far right has dwindled considerably, although there have been recent rumours of a revival. Glimmerveen, now aged sixty-eight and one of the few Holocaust-deniers on the Dutch far right, still frequently attends NVP/CP'86 demonstrations and was even detained for questioning in November 1997, following remarks made at a meeting of the CP'86 (see also below and Legal matters). The NVU participated in the March 1998 municipal elections in two towns where candidates given as 'List Glimmerveen' and Joop Glimmerveen headed both electoral lists. Glimmerveen failed to win a seat.
In October 1996 the British anti-facist magazine Searchlight reported that there were about 250 neo-Nazi skinheads in Holland. Companies that sell the music of neo-Nazi bands include Nordisc in Leeuwarden and Viking Sounds in Goes. Another music subculture is composed of the 10,000 or so 'gabbers', who are distinguishable from skinheads by their dress although they have the same hairstyles. While most 'gabbers' are simply followers of 'gabber house music', an estimated 600-1,000 of them adhere to racist ideology.
The most important recent far-right gathering was the 1997 commemoration of Hitler's unsuccessful coup d'état of 9 November 1923 (the same date as Kristallnacht 1938). The majority of leading neo-Nazis from the Netherlands and Germany attended a closed meeting in a room which had been rented from the Dutch Reform Church (under the pretext that it was a meeting of veterans who fought in the former Yugoslavia). The speeches of Joop Glimmerveen and Constant Kusters - a former CP'86 officer who was expelled in 1994 - were regularly interrupted with cries of 'Sieg Heil' (for both men, see Legal matters). Visitors also gave the Nazi salute and some wore swastika armbands. Invited journalists recorded the proceedings and photos of the meeting were published in the local press.
Following the meeting questions were raised in parliament by members of the lower chamber on 11 November 1997. The minister of justice answered on 8 December, stating that the public prosecutor's office in Rotterdam had been asked to initiate an investigation into possible punishable offences committed during the meeting (see Legal matters).
The number of antisemitic incidents recorded in the Netherlands in 1997-8 increased slightly in comparison with previous years. Most were not of a life-threatening or violent nature, but rather individual cases of threats or insults. There was a particularly high incidence of verbal abuse in the workplace. Contrary to the expectation of monitoring groups the high levels of media coverage concerning war-time assets and gold stolen by the Nazis led to no increase in the number of reported incidents.
Individual incidents include: written threats and abuse, such as the return of copies of Jewish National Fund (JNF) advertisments daubed with antisemitic remarks to JNF offices and antisemitic texts sent to the Jewish weekly Nieuw Israelitisch Weekblad; workplace incidents, such as bullying in the office; and graffitti and the daubing of Jewish property, such as the daubing of posters advertising the Jewish Historical Museum in Amsterdam.
The memorial to the victims of Auschwitz in Amsterdam was daubed with graffitti. The dedication text, including the slogan 'Never again Auschwitz', was damaged to such an extent that it was rendered illegible. The police suspect vandals.
The daubings on the war monument in Vught - the second time in three years - received national publicity. On the night of 4 May (5 May is the Dutch day of commemoration of the Second World War) the monument was daubed with swastikas, an upside-down crucifix and an unfinished text relating to the Ku Klux Klan. The perpetrators have not been found.
The synagogue of Middelburg was daubed with swastikas. A mosque in Leiden also had a swastika painted on it with the words 'Jews not good'.
Small municipalities in the region of Krimpenerwaard (an area in the vicinity of Rotterdam) were subjected in February to a spate of racist daubings. In the area of Duindorp near The Hague thirty-six swastikas were discovered in one day. The war monument in the area was also daubed with racist slogans.
Among the antisemitic stickers that have been described by the discrimination reporting centre in Rotterdam is one of particular interest: a sticker, which reappeared at a shopping centre in Spijkenisse (near Rotterdam), known to have been produced by the American neo-Nazi organization Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei/Auslands und Aufbauorganisation (NSDAP/AO, German National Socialist Workers' Party/Overseas Section, see also Publications and media and USA). After the NSDAP/AO's leader Gary Lauck was imprisoned in Germany in 1996, the organization's propaganda had more or less disappeared.
The police in Gorinchem (a small town in south-west Holland) arrested a fifteen-year-old youth for daubing racist slogans. Neo-Nazi flags and propaganda were subsequently found at his home. The youth was allegedly part of a gang of vandals, active in his area for some months, responsible for sending racist materials and propaganda (produced by the Netherlands' Youth Front) to a local Turkish youth centre.
There have been very few recent reports of Holocaust-denial propaganda or the circulation of denial texts. This may be as a result of the willingness to adopt an increasingly strict prosecution policy (see, for example, the case against the Belgian Siegfried Verbeke in Legal matters). Verbeke's Antwerp-based Vrij Historisch Onderzoek (VHO, Foundation for Free Historical Research, see also Belgium) has been the principal source of Holocaust-denial material in the Netherlands in recent years. Verbeke has reportedly recently launched a new international magazine entitled Vierteljahresheft fur freie Geschichtsforschung (Quarterly for Free Historical Research). The 'magazine' appears on the VHO's extensive web-site.
A journalist working for the national daily De Telegraaf (the largest circulation daily) reported that the tract 'Jewish Losses and Missing Persons during World War Two', published by the VHO, had been sent to him. There were also reports of VHO publications circulating in Breda in late 1997: an elderly man apparently hand delivered them to the chair of a Breda committee. The police initiated an investigation into the incident following a complaint.
Readers complained after an article appeared in the regional daily De Gelderlander with the headline 'Jew cash'. The paper apologized and stated that the headline should never have been printed. The same headline appeared in a seamen's paper although in this case, despite letters of protest, the editors refused to issue an apology.
In Kootwijkerbroek (central Netherlands) a pamphlet appeared written by P. Van der Meer and W. Oostrum entitled 'Who's a Jew? The state of Israel: trickery or fulfilment of a prophecy?'. The pamphlet stated: 'Jews drink the blood of Christians to keep themselves alive.' A complaint was lodged by the Centrum Informatie en Documentatie over Israël (CIDI, Centre for Jewish Information and Documentation). Van der Meer was convicted in 1981 for the distribution of Holocaust-denial literature.
Among the recent racist and antisemitic pamphlets received by the discrimination reporting centre in Maastricht there was material published by the US neo-Nazi organization NSDAP/AO (see Antisemitic incidents and USA) and other items including Nazi symbols, neo-Nazi emblems and a text entitled 'How the Jews invented Hollywood'.
There have been regular reports of Mein Kampf being offered for sale by second-hand bookshops, book fairs or book retailers. Questions were raised in parliament and the minister of justice stated that, in principle, Mein Kampf should not be sold unless the edition includes a disclaimer. (Editions of the book are available for reference in public libraries.) The police are obliged to draw up a police report if any sales of the book are reported; they say that the book is in fact relatively easy to get hold of and estimate that about half of the purchasers are supporters of the far right.
The 1997 report by the European Committee against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) ranked the people of the Netherlands somewhat below the European average for holding racist beliefs. Sixty per cent of Dutch respondents said that there is no more room in the country for foreigners.
The most important case in 1997 was that of the Belgian Holocaust-denier Siegfried Verbeke in the supreme court in November. The court upheld his previous sentence dating from May 1996 (pronounced by the court in The Hague) which had imposed a fine of fl 5,000 (US$2,900) and a six-month suspended sentence for Holocaust denial. The upholding of this sentence marks the first time the supreme court has laid down a clear precedent: the deliberate denial and belittling of the Holocaust is prohibited in the Netherlands. This judgement was the last step in a process which began in 1992 when the Anne Frank Stichting (Anne Frank Foundation), the Landelijk Buro Racismebestrijding (LBR, National Bureau against Racial Discrimination) and CIDI took Verbeke to court for the first time (see Holocaust denial and Belgium).
The most important legal case of 1998 was the ban placed on NVP/CP'86 by an Amsterdam court in November (see Parties, organizations, movements). It is very rare in the Netherlands for a whole political party to be forbidden and ordered to disband.
In Rotterdam on 13 February 1997 a magistrate sentenced an employee of the NVP/CP'86 branch in Rotterdam to a four-week prison term after he mistreated an alderman in the corridor of the Rotterdam town hall in May 1996.
In Dordrecht in May 1997 the magistrates court fined Cees Koning, at the time a CD member of the town council of Dordrecht, fl 2,000 (US$1,160) and awarded him a two-week conditional jail sentence for distributing racist propaganda. The case referred to an incident in October 1995 when Koning spoke before the town council. He subsequently gave a journalist a copy of the speech which included racist references and was then charged and found guilty.
In 1997 a Utrecht court fined Martijn de Regt fl 7,000 (US$4,060) for possessing arms and ammunition. De Regt was employed by the CD faction in the lower house of parliament. He now sits as an independent member of the town council of Utrecht.
On 2 July 1997 five members of the far right, including Joop Glimmerveen and Constant Kusters (for both men, see Parties, organizations, movements), were fined and sentenced to suspended prison sentences for ignoring the ban on a demonstration in December 1996.
On 3 July 1997 the court of Arnhem sentenced Constant Kusters to a two-month suspended jail term and a fl 500 (US$290) fine for maltreatment. In June 1993 Kusters beat up a passer-by in Arnhem for calling him a 'dirty Nazi'. There are several other cases against Kusters still pending.
In October 1997 the magistrates' court in Assen (the capital of the northern province of Drenthe) fined a football supporter fl 500 (fl300 of which was suspended) (US$290, $174 suspended) for repeatedly screaming 'Disgusting Jew' during a football match. According to the magistrate, he was deliberately singling out Jews. The public prosecutor has notified the Dutch football federation of the incident so that the man can be barred from entering a football stadium.
In October 1997 the supreme court confirmed the 1995 finding of an Amsterdam court that the leaders of NVP/CP'86 (including Ton Mudde, Martijn Freling and Stewart Mordaunt) were members of a criminal organization (see Parties, organizations, movements). The court maintained that the executive committee of the party acted like a criminal organization intending to carry out crimes. The crimes in question were incitement to racial hatred and discrimination of ethnic minorities. NVP/CP'86 did not accept the sentence and according to Freling were planning to take the case to the European court.
Two months later, in Arnhem in December, two of the same suspects and Hans Janmaat were in court again. Janmaat, head of the CD electoral list and a member of the lower house of parliament for that party, was awarded a suspended jail sentence of two months and fined fl 7,500 (US$4,350). Freling got the same sentence, and Mudde a one-month suspended term and a fine of fl 3,000 (US$1,740). The men were found guilty of deliberate incitement to racial discrimination during a demonstration on 24 February 1996 in Zwolle, during which they called out slogans such as 'Our own people first', 'Enough is enough' and 'Holland for the Dutch'.
In Rotterdam on 22 January and 3 February 1998 the public prosecutor's office notified the chairman of the NVU (see Parties, organizations, movements) that he would be prosecuted for comments made during a meeting of neo-Nazis in Schiedam. Stewart Mordaunt, who had allegedly referred to 'Jewish domination of the Dutch political parties' at the meeting, is also expected to be prosecuted on the same grounds.
Following an investigation into the far-right gathering held to commemorate Hitler's unsuccessful coup d'état of 9 November 1923 (see Parties, organizations, movements) - an investigation that was possible because the meeting had been reported in the press and thus made public - Joop Glimmerveen was convicted by a court. The conviction refers particularly to threats made by Glimmerveen to a black MP and to a journalist from a daily newspaper in The Hague.
Fighting racism continues to be - or is even more so - in the news, inside and out of political circles. Much of the debate concerns the moral desirability of banning political parties. The debate was concluded in November 1998, one year after Justice Minister Winnie Sorgdrager called for urgent action, with the banning of a political party (see Legal matters)
In March 1997, on the international day against racism, the Dutch Complaints Bureau for Discrimination on the Internet (MDI) was opened in Amsterdam. MDI is supported by anti-racist organizations, including the LBR, and its particular brief is to fight discrimination on the Internet.
According to the minister of justice, in recent years violence by far-right activists against local politicians has been on the increase. Council members and aldermen are increasingly faced with threatening letters, arson and physical and verbal abuse. A report entitled 'Monitor racism and the extreme right' was published in 1997 by the Institute for Social Scientific Investigation of Leiden. The report provides insights into the development of the far right in the Netherlands, how it operates, what the government is doing and how to prohibit it.
Demonstrations and meetings to commemorate the Second World War continue to be held. The most important were held on 4 and 5 May (the Netherlands was liberated on 5 May). The liberation of Auschwitz was commemorated at the end of January 1998, as was the anniversary of the dockers' strike the following month. These commemorative events are also used as a chance to remind people of the fight against contemporary racism.
The annual demonstration against racism, organized by Nederland Bekent Kleur (Holland Shows Its Colours), was held on 21 March 1998. Pop against Racism sponsored its annual 'Racism beat it' music festival.
Events held specifically as part of the fight against antisemitism
included a day of study at the end of December 1997 organized by the Anne
Frank Foundation, the Christian-Jewish consultative body and CIDI. Other
training evenings were organized by CIDI in co-operation with B'nai B'rith.
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Institute for Jewish Policy Research and American Jewish Committee
© JPR 1999
