Libya

1998 marked the twenty-ninth anniversary of the revolution that brought Colonel Muammar Qaddafi to power and led to the establishment of his dictatorship. Foreign relations remain dominated by the dispute with the United States over Qaddafi's refusal to extradite two Libyans suspected of responsibility for the 1988 bombing of an American aircraft over Scotland. Since 1992 the UN has imposed economic and diplomatic sanctions, against Libya, including an embargo on all international flights.

Qaddafi may still be seeking to improve relations with the West in order to alleviate Libya's severe economic problems. During the last two years hostile statements about the USA have been toned down and blatant forms of antisemitism, such as references to 'Judeo-Christian conspiracies against Islam' that were prevalent in the Libyan media in previous years, appear to have waned.

Ethnic groups: Arabic-speaking Muslims of mixed Arab and Amazigh (Berber) origin (97 per cent), tribal groups such as the Tuaregs and Warfalla, Greeks, Maltese, Italians, Egyptians, Pakistanis, Turks, Indians, Tunisians

Political system: theoretically Jamahiriya (masses ruling through local councils)

Opposition groups: As in previous years, internal opposition remains fragmented but most conspicuous among the opposition groups were Islamist militants, including al-Jama'mat al-Islamiyya al-Muqatila (Militant Islamic Group.). Violent clashes between militant Islamists and security forces took place throughout recent years, especially in the eastern provinces of Libya. Qaddafi's regime was also challenged by members of his own tribe - the Qadhafa - and by rebels within the military. Libya has been heavily criticized for human rights violations, including extra-judicial killings and torture of political opponents, as well as the killing of dissidents abroad.

Declining oil revenue, high inflation and subsequent food shortages contribute to political unrest within Libya.

From the fifteenth century onwards, Jews in Libya experienced many periods of persecution. Libyan Jews were subjected to Italian racial laws in 1936. During the Second World War the Jewish quarter of Benghazi was sacked and 2,000 Jews were deported. In November 1945 more than 100 Jews were murdered in anti-Jewish riots in Tripoli.

Before Libya became independent in 1951, most of the 38,000 Libyan Jews emigrated to Israel. Those who stayed were disenfranchised in 1963 and forbidden to hold office. During the 1967 Six-Day War about 118 Jews were killed and there was widespread destruction of Jewish property. When Qaddafi came to power in 1971, all Jewish property was seized without compensation. In 1993 Qaddafi announced that he was willing to compensate Jewish and Italian emigrés for property left in Libya and that Jews of Libyan origin, including the100,000 living in Israel, would be welcome to visit the country. These conciliatory statements were possibly intended to soften western attitudes towards Libya.

Libya is a fairly homogeneous society-approximately 97 per cent of the population are Sunni Muslim Arabs or Muslims of Amazigh (Berber) descent. The Amazigh minority is subject to some discrimination, as are other tribal groups, such as the Tuaregs in the South. In recent years thousands of migrant workers from Nigeria, Mali and Ghana have been detained or expelled from Libya.

Earlier attempts by Qaddafi to raise Libya's status within the Arab world by portraying himself as a champion of the Palestinian cause were contradicted by the massive deportation of Palestinians in 1995, an act signalling disapproval of the signing of an interim agreement between the PLO and Israel. Many of the deportees eventually returned to Libya.

In July 1998, the UNHCR reported that there were approximately 10,000 refugees in Libya, including some 4,200 Palestinians, 3,500 Somalis and smaller numbers of Eritreans, Sudanese and Ethiopians.

Throughout 1997 and 1998, Qaddafi's hostility to the United States, the United Kingdom and the West was occasionally tinged with antisemitism. To cite just one example, in a speech broadcast on 11 June 1997 on Libyan television to mark the anniversary of the evacuation of American forces from Libya in 1970 Qaddafi asserted that the USA was dominated by Jews: 'Banks in America are in Jewish hands, senior officials are manipulated by Jews, the American National Security Council, the White House, the Pentagon are under Jewish control.

In addition to broadcasting and publicizing Qaddafi's personal statements, the state-controlled Jamahirriyah News Agency (JANA) and the Tripoli Libyan Television Network clearly reflect Qaddafi's hostile attitudes towards Israel and the West.

Qaddafi remains implacably opposed to Israel and to the Middle East peace process. In his condemnations of Israel he invariably uses the terms 'Israeli' and 'Jew' interchangeably and suggests that Jews are attempting to destabilize the Middle East both militarily and by spreading drugs.

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